Armengol's essential argument is that (a) despite development efforts and globalization of the past two decades, Latin America has become increasingly poor and increasingly marginalized; (b) education could help combat this problem, but the current university system is rigid, conservative, and non-responsive to needed changes; and (c) distance and virtual universities can function not only as alternatives to traditional universities, but also as fundamental engines for restructuring the university system and, as a consequence, driving important social and economic changes. In other words, Latin America needs effective reform. Education can do it. But not until education is reformed. And DE can do that.

According to Armengol, the biggest problem with the current university system is that it is based on the "French, Napoleonic model." This model is insular, faculty dominated, usually operates in an information silo structure, and its pedagogy is primarily based on rote memorization. This model is inimical to the kinds of learning needed in an information global society, where collaboration, community, and information sharing are the dominant paradigm. Armengol's point is that distance education, with its collaborative, learner-centered pedagogy is the model needed to (a) help reform education and (b) help Latin America better function in a global society.

The first part of Barkin's article is a fierce criticism of neo-liberalism, which is, according to him, responsible for "exacerbating the polarization of society in all of its dimensions" (p. 184). The second part of the article argues for a sustainable development-- a productive reorganization that encompasses local groups throughout the world. He recognizes that implementation strategies will vary among different regions and eco-systems, but the single common denominator is effective democratic participation. In discussing the importance of networks as a strategy for sustainable development, he does not mention ICT as a way of making that happen. But his critique and analysis clearly assumes the context of a globalized economy.

This is a case study of how the Open University and Distance Education Coordination (CUAED) division of the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM) planned and implemented an ambitious 18-month program to expand distance learning in Mexico. First, instead of licensing Blackboard, WebCT or other commercial products, they went the open source route and developed their own learning management system called the "PUEL" system. Second, they took over an abandoned 9,000 square meter textile factory in the State of Tiaxcala and created a Distance Education High Technology Center, where courses are designed, research and training are done, and best practices are disseminated, etc. Third, they restructured UNAM's old Open University and created a Board of Distance Education. The board coordinates, manages, and evaluates, but essentially they function to decentralize, to use the PUEL system to provide the necessary infrastructure and resources for their schools to actually perform distance education. Essentially, they centralized their decentralization. And they are extremely successful.

This article is essentially a report/case study on the Proformacao project that employs distance learning strategies to increase teacher training in Brazil. The goal was to provide training to 27,000 uncertified teachers in 15 Brazilian states. The very existence of such a project (much less its success) is surprising, especially in light of the Brazilian Ministry of Education's conservative, backward, and obstructionist reputation regarding distance learning (see Litto below). What is especially interesting is that in teaching strategies this is old-fashioned distance learning delivery that depends on the distribution of written materials (study guides, workbooks) and on individual attention given by tutors, but in program management, it depended on communication networks and computer database management systems. Using technology, the project leaders were able to decentralize functions and manage disparate groups of stakeholders who contributed to the success of the project. They used ICT not to teach, but to manage the teaching.

The Bush and Charron piece is primarily an argument for training school managers, and it offers some basic features of a successful distance training program. First, Bush and Charron make the very important point that one of the most significant components of successful schools is the quality of leadership and management. Typically, this involves the principal or head teacher--individuals who are often simply promoted to such positions because of success in teaching. But teaching and management require a different set of skills, and the best teachers are not always the best managers. Certainly, they need training. Further, in recent years there has been a significant movement of decentralization in developing countries, increasingly shifting responsibility from central offices and government agencies to individual schools. Much is asked of a school manager. Little training is offered. Bush and Charron suggest the following features as typical of successful training for school managers: high quality materials, school focused assessment, support by a facilitator, accreditation, and clear aims, content, and support.

Butcher and Roberts do cover very generally some key concepts of costing, including: cost drivers, capital costs, the difference between actual costs and notional estimates, and the difference between variable costs and fixed costs, as well as the concepts of direct, indirect, and overhead costs. But financial planners usually know those sorts of things. The force of their chapter, really, is to put costing of distance learning in context and warn against typical problems and popular misconceptions. One typical problem, for instance, is that while short-term costs are usually dealt with fairly well, planning for long-term sustainability is often overlooked. And one typical misconception is that distance education is less expensive than contact education. It is and it isn't. It depends so much on the numbers and how well the planners balance efficiency with effectiveness. This takes the costing issue out of realm of simple numbers, and puts it into such disciplines as course design, media, technology, and such. Essentially, Butcher and Roberts give general information on how to manage the highest quality learning for as many people possible at the lowest cost possible. That's the balancing act distance learning financial planners need to perform.

In this 96 page publication, Carnoy explains globalization and how it has affected education reforms. His primary point is that since globalization has been dominated by financial-driven strategies and free-market ideologies, less has been spent on education instead of more, and this has been counter-productive, not only to education, but also to the nation-states' ability to function effectively in the global market. In sum, Carnoy suggests that globalization can be and should be embraced, but some of the ideological rhetoric of finance-driven reforms should be resisted. Other reforms, however, such as decentralization, testing and standards, can work as long as there is a coherent and systemic effort by the public sector that produces more and more effective public spending.

Part I considers what globalization is. Carnoy argues that it is not merely a matter of trade, investment, or national economy, but a "new way of thinking about social space and time" (p.19).

Part II considers the impact of globalization on work. In terms of education, his essential point is that while new information technology may displace workers and may influence short-term training and investments, that does not negate the essential fact that the new labor markets are increasingly information intensive, flexible, and disaggregative--and that our educational strategies should take that into account.

Part III considers globalization's impact on educational reform strategies. Here, Carnoy argues that changes in the world economy have provoked three kinds of reforms in education: (1) competitiveness-driven reforms, (2) finance-driven reforms, and (3) equity-driven reforms.

Part IV discusses educational reforms in the global economy. In this section, Carnoy cites empirical studies that have shown the ineffectiveness of most reforms. For instance, studies show that the neo-conservative policies promoted by the WorldBank and IMF are associated with increased poverty, increased inequality and slow or negative economic growth; these financial reforms have actually served to limit public resources for education. According to Carnoy, the motives for educational reform have been essentially financial and ideological--not, really, educational. Such reforms have actually increased (not relieved) pressure on teacher salaries and, as a consequence, have produced resistance in those most central to education improvement. Carnoy argues that teachers are the key to producing academic success and that decentralization globalization reforms have actually done more harm in this regard than good.

Part V considers the impact of globalization on educational practices. Especially interesting is the research that has shown that students in Cuban schools (which obviously have not followed WorldBank policies) have scored almost two standard deviations higher than those in Brazil, Chile, and Argentina--schools that have followed all the policy recommendations of the new global thinking. Carnoy's point here is that Cuban schools use tests as an incentive to invest more, not less in education. Carnoy argues that for testing to be effective, it needs to be a part of a systematic effort to assist teachers and schools, not reduce their funding. Perhaps the heart of the entire book is when Carnoy argues that if nations hope to increase the skills of their students, they will have to rely on the commitment of their teachers and to do this requires a "management system that takes teacher needs into account and involves their participation in improving the quality of education" (p. 71). In 1999, Carnoy is extremely optimistic about the new information and communication technologies and the extraordinary opportunity they offer for extending schooling to more difficult to reach communities.

Part VI considers globalization and cultural identity. Interesting here is Carnoy's observation that those less successful in the global marketplace turn in other directions for their identity and do so more intensely than in the past. Especially troubling is how the less globally successful are turning to religious fundamentalism. Carnoy notes that the fastest growing self-identify group is Muslim fundamentalists, but Christian fundamentalism and Hindu fundamentalism are growing and mobilizing as well. Obviously, this has serious consequences not only for education, but also for world peace.

Part VII sums up by suggesting some basic educational strategies for a global economy. Carnoy points out that there is no right way to organize an education system, but there are some objective realities that educational policy makers should keep in mind. They include:

• Privatization and well-run scholarships may be the most equitable way to improve access.
• Planners should reconsider long held views about the balance between general education and vocational education.
• Educational systems need to be more flexible--accepting adults returning for life-long learning.
• Testing and evaluation brought about by globalization can have a positive effect on educational quality "when combined with an activist and well-organized public-sector effort to improve capacity for teaching and learning" (p. 85).
• Decentralization and local autonomy can be productive and can help preserve identity and culture
• The new information and communication technologies have enormous implications for making education available to more students and ever-decreasing costs.

See Summary of Globalization and educational reform: what planners need to know for more detail.

The Collis & Jung piece mostly states the obvious: there is a difference between training teachers how to use ICT and training with ICT; ICT can function as a complement to the teaching process, or as the core; if it is the core, then it is more important; there is a danger of the digital divide; ICT will become increasingly common and can be used to reach more people and a cost savings. But the obvious can be useful, since it provides an overview of the subject. The authors have a column in a table that lists "Supporting new ways of teaching and learning" which is helpful in terms of the pedagogical implications of using ICT. But in the text of their chapter, they essentially ignore pedagogy and do not address how ICT can function as a common "place," how it not only revolutionizes access by redefining distance, it can be a transformative tool in moving teacher training from "delivery" modes to constructivist learner-centered modes. There seems to be a general assumption in this piece, as in several others, that ICT is primarily a delivery mechanism, when in truth, it is much more. Approximately a third of the text was an annotated list of Web sites. I found LearnLink to be especially interesting.

This extremely useful publication has four major parts.

Part One establishes teacher education in terms of its relationship to distance education, education, and global development. Creed notes that in recent years, there has been a shift in teacher education from the old model of training teachers at the beginning of their careers (with maybe a professional development update every few years) to a newer model of a continuous lifelong learning activity. Additionally, the new thinking in teacher education gives prominence not to "first theory then practice," but to the reflective teacher who finds theory in practice through action research. Creed argues that ICT has given new prominence to distance education in general and to the exciting new possibilities for teacher education in particular. The rationale for DE for teacher education is that it can (a) increases access and opportunities with its wider geographical reach, (b) be cost effective, and (c) help to support teachers in times of educational change and curricular reform.

Part Two considers the factors that contribute to the success of distance education for teachers, focusing on organizational models, content, curriculum and technology. Creed's primary point is that successful DE programs for teachers must have coherence (in aims and purpose) and cohesion (in policy). Here, she touches on the issue of centralization vs. decentralization. The author makes the interesting point that distance education programs often feed into the so-called "transmission view" of education--the simplistic notion that all is missing in deprived areas is instructional materials. Further, DE also supports the centralization tendencies of some ministries of education. But Creed argues that such centralizing tendencies need to be balanced with two way interaction between students and tutors and that one of the best rationales for DE is that it can centralize and industrialize those parts of teacher education for which it is appropriate and, as a consequence, free up more time and resources for interaction and reflection. This is, of course, why ICT is so exciting and why it has brought DE to center stage--ICT can not only deliver education, it also can provide opportunities for two-way (even multi-way) communication and interaction. Creed spends some time discussing policy cohesion and how program leaders need to be involved in delegating the management and organization of the practicum to a wide range of education partners, including teacher training colleges, schools, principals, head teachers and local tutors. The interesting point here is that even if ICT can't be used to "deliver" education to students because of infrastructure limitations, it often can be used to manage the complex network required to make the teacher practicum successful. In terms of content and curriculum, Creed points out that DE teacher education not only serves general education, subject education, and political contexts, it also serves to update international trends in education, ushering in such innovations as action research, collaborative and cooperative teaching, peer evaluation, and self-reflection. In terms of technology, Creed notes (in 2001) that teacher education by distance is still dominated by use of print, but that much energy and excitement is generated by ICT, especially since ICT is beginning to blur the distinction between distribution and teaching. ICT allows for both to happen at a distance.

Part Three considers costs and funding. Creed points out that distance learning is often characterized by having high fixed costs and low variable costs, which contributes to economies of scale. But she also points out other economic efficiencies, such as if the student studies part time while working full time or part time, then no one has to pay for residence costs or loss of production from the working teachers. Here, Creed notes that while there are various funding options (government, student fees, private, local, donors, NGOs), most teacher education in developing countries is paid for by ministries of education. In terms of technology, obviously, the more sophisticated the medium, the higher the cost of materials for development--radio costs more than print, television costs more than radio, and computer-based learning continues to cost more than other media. Further, the single most expensive item in a program of teacher education is student support.

Part Four lays our a research agenda for further improvement. Creed notes especially that decision makers do not have an accessible body of research to make their decisions, and we simply we do not know enough about effectiveness of different management models, either centralized or decentralized.

This is primarily a study of the community college system in the United States and Canada, yet each time a policy or experience is discussed, de Moura Castro and Garcia then make intriguing links to Latin America, suggesting how such a policy/experience might work there. Throughout the book, de Moura Castro and Garcia include numerous statistics, examples, case studies and models of Latin American (as well as US) higher education.

The authors clearly admire the North American community college movement of recent decades, describing it as the most democratic of any segment in higher education. They lay out their argument for Latin America by considering the characteristics of the US community college system. For instance, since CCs are learner-based and community based, they are more responsive to social and economic needs of students than the traditional university. This is what Latin America needs. And since the US community colleges are able to respond quickly to change, they have been quick to embrace information technology, changing demographics, and world globalization trends. This, too, is what Latin America needs. Also, the US community colleges maintain close ties to local businesses, engage in partnerships, and collaborate with K-12 schools and community organizations far more than do traditional universities. And where traditional universities take pride in excluding students, US community colleges take pride in including students. And that, perhaps, is the primary reason Latin America should focus on the US community college model--they are inclusive and focus on the needs of the academically under prepared student.

de Moura Castro and Garcia also consider funding. Since local control is a basic tenet of the US community college system, there really is no national governing body or single financing model. But the bulk of funding comes from local and state public sources and keeps the cost for the student significantly less than the traditional university. Something Latin America should emulate. One of the more intriguing case studies in funding is the Tarrant County Community College system in Texas (Fort Worth).

The authors admit that the transfer of credits issue is a major one. And perhaps the primary reason for the success of community colleges in the US is the fairly widespread practice of higher ed institutions accepting transfer credits. Admittedly, this can cause problems, especially for certain programs (such as engineering) where the community college two-year course of study is primarily practical and the higher ed first two years is primarily theoretical. Here, the authors point out the Canadian practice of "bridge" courses that can help bring the transfer student up to speed in theoretical background.

This book was prepared for the Regional Preparatory Ministerial Conference of Latin America and the Caribbean for the World Summit on the Information Society, which took place in Bavaro, Punta Cana, Dominican Republic, from 29 to 31 January, 2003.

The first part of the report essentially sets the context--defining an Information Society, and citing research that shows that information digitization and communication can have a strong positive impact on economic development and productivity--it is even estimated that it could even make up 20% of Latin America's GDP in the near future (p.17). Further, the digitization process can also be used to improve learning opportunities and raise educational standards, which then can benefit society as a whole. The report recognizes the extraordinary opportunity that the Information revolution offers developing countries in the global market. But it also recognizes the grave consequences of not participating and essentially being shut out due to a sort of international digital divide.

The report argues that ICT can (a) promote education and health care, (b) improve economic efficiency, (c) increase cultural and political participation, (d) assist in poverty reduction, (e) promote equality by integrating marginalized groups, and (d) support the creation of global partnerships. The authors claim that the question is no longer a matter of whether to "get connected" but when and how.

The report concludes with the "Bavaro Declaration" which includes guiding principles and a listing of priority issues. The guiding principles (there are 12) essentially proclaim that the Information Society should benefit individuals, communities and society in general; contribute to the eradication of poverty, the creation of wealth, the promotion of democratic participation and ensure equal opportunity; be inclusive, nondiscriminatory, global, and led by governments.

This report ranks the world's 64 largest economies in terms of their ability to support e-business and how amenable their market is to internet-based opportunities. Though the focus is on business, the study obviously has much to offer the educational planner considering ICT as part of the delivery, support, or management of distance learning.

The report recognizes the wireless phone phenomena. In most of the developing world, there are more mobile phones in hands than PCs on desks, and it is interesting how phones themselves are becoming delivery mechanisms for internet services. Across Latin America, mobile subscriptions grew by 18% in 2003. The trend is expected to continue.

The report breaks the countries down in four tiers. There are 25 countries in the top tier for e-readiness. They include the US, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and most of Western Europe, as well as Singapore, Hong Kong, and Japan. The second tier includes much of Eastern Europe, as well as Chile, Brazil, and Mexico. Chile is the highest rated Latin American country (29), followed by Brazil (35) and Mexico (39). The third tier includes Colombia(41) and Venezuela (44). The fourth tier includes Ecuador (56).

The report recognizes the obvious North-South divide in the Americas, and notes that Latin American markets have moved very little since the 2003 report. There are, however, positive signs. "Governments are increasingly supportive of e-commerce activity, mobile penetration is expected to grow, and the Internet is no longer the preserve of the rich" (p. 10).

Mexico is especially encouraging. The country's telecom regulator, Cofatel, is seeking to expedite the installation of Internet services, and the Mexican government has begun an ambitious e-commerce plan called "e-Mexico" designed, essentially, to make online government services accessible to as many as possible. At the time of the report, this initiative has installed local access sites in 2,300 municipalities. They plan is to install 20,000 such sites by 2006.

Perhaps most encouraging for the educational planner of distance learning for Latin America is in Brazil, where a private trade group called the Telecom Standardization Fund (FUST) has plans to install free broadband in all public schools by the end of 2004. The Brazilian government was actually the first in the world to allow corporate tax filings online. In 2003, nearly 95% were submitted online.

This publication from the Commonwealth of Learning was put together in order to support an informed a dialogue on education and globalization specifically related to the World Trade Organization's General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS). It is an extraordinarily useful document for anyone interested in distance learning and its relationship to globalization. The report consists of numbered paragraphs--clearly, precisely, and objectively laying out the issues on both (or, rather, several) sides.

Without question, globalization and the needs of a global knowledge economy are driving the movement of education across borders. Those favoring education/globalization under GATS are, principally, the WTO, multinational companies, and corporate universities. Those skeptical of GATS are typically trade unions and international associations of universities, primarily because they perceive GATS to be a threat to their funding and existence.

What is interesting about the globalization of education is that it pretty much assumes, by definition, distance education.

Advocates of globalization of education argue that (a) international students and faculty enrich the curriculum, (b) students gain access to knowledge and expertise, regardless of where they live; (b) global markets help maintain income; (c) private companies can help satisfy unmet demand; and (d) economies of scale can be achieved through distance learning. Essentially, advocates of GATS see knowledge as a commodity and education as a service to be traded globally. International agencies and organizations that support GATS and cross-border trade in education include the WTO, the World Bank, The Observatory of Borderless Higher Education, as well as the European Union.

Opponents of cross-border trade in education argue that distance learning (a) is inferior to F2F learning, (b) discriminates against the poor, and (c) imposes a common curriculum, thus subverting cultural diversity and helping to destroy national identities. They believe that cross-border trade in education (a) undermines co-operative internationalism, (b) accelerates commodification, (c) erodes employment conditions, (d) constrains academic freedom, (e) will raise student fees and reduce public funding, (f) will damage quality, and (g) will prevent governments from regulating in the public interest. Agencies that oppose GATS are UK trade unions, the Association of University Teachers, and the National Union of Students.

This 48 page document is full of information and statistics on distance learning in the context of globalization. For instance, we learn (a) that in 2003, Sylvan learning--now Laureate--delivered courses to over 37,000 students in Mexico and (b) that in 2000, the US exported over $10 billion in education (and imported $2.1 billion).

One particularly interesting subject is how the very nature of distance learning supports partnerships, consortia, and various institutional collaborations in the design, development, delivery, funding, accreditation, and support of education. Put one way--distance education lends itself to integrated disaggregated value chains; that is, the system itself centralizes decentralization. Different functions can be farmed out to different partners. Resources can be outsourced. Yet the whole system is linked together. This has enormous implications for borderless education. The design of courses can be in one country, the teaching in another, the support in another, and the accreditation in yet another. And, obviously, this provides opportunities as well as challenges for funding and cost sharing.

For advocates of borderless education, there is general agreement about the importance of an internationally recognized accreditation system that can help maintain quality and protect students from "unscrupulous borderless" operators. The report notes several recent movements in this area. For instance, in America, the Council for Higher Education Accreditation (CHEA) has begun discussions on international accreditation and formulated some basic principles for guidance.

This first part of this article/chapter is primarily a set of questions that policy-makers need to ask in developing a plan for teacher education. The numerous questions listed involve the usual suspects about aims, goals, management, responsibilities, funding, curricular implications and how distance education can specifically be used. In their follow-up discussion, the authors make several important points. Among them:

1. the importance of political support and that it must be secured at the policy formulation stage
2. policy makers should be aware of the successes as well as the potential pitfalls and constraints that ODL brings to the table
3. new programs and projects for teacher education must align with existing policy frameworks
4. for programs to be successful, they need to respond directly to specific local needs
5. working partnerships between ministries, donor agencies, teacher education institutions and local schools offer opportunities as well as challenges
6. management perspective is critical to the development of practical and implementable policies; therefore, a well-qualified and experienced management team should be put in place at the very beginning.
7. monitoring and evaluation are critical elements in managing ODL

Perhaps the most interesting bit of advice the authors give is that there needs to be a judicious blend of "top-down" and "bottom-up" approaches to change. They actually quote the (in)famous reengineering gurus of the mid-nineties, Hammer and Stanton, who observed that without top-down leadership and any real commitment to change at the top, bottom-up initiatives will likely be short lived and fail in the long term. This issue is similar to the centralization/decentralization struggle discussed so often in development initiatives. On the one hand, the concerns have to be local and the local communities/players need to be empowered for change to really happen. On the other hand, without guidance, leadership, and support from the top, de-centralized initiatives are not likely to succeed for any length of time. Here is where the very powerful argument for ICT comes into play: it can centralize decentralization. And it can provide top-down support while empowering bottom-up initiatives. The power of the network.

This publication lines up with almost every article I've read concerning ICTs and education in that one primary principle (assumption, presumption, value, goal, context) is that diverse cultures will be respected/maintained. Whether specific implementation strategies for maintaining diversity follow or not, diversity is apparently a tribute that must be paid before discussing change in a global context. Even though this chapter article is essentially a report and not an argument or set of implementation strategies, Kemp is no exception.

Kemp defines schoolnets as "the entities that facilitate the collaboration between schools using ICTs for education purposes" (p. 28). He also remarks on the nature of the education system--that it is evolutionary more than revolutionary, and that it is unlikely to move to more collaborative models of learning without a catalyst. Schoolnets can be that catalyst. They can help remote schools to overcome isolation, they can help provide equity of access to information regardless of where the school happens to be, and they can actually provide the tools for moving education to more collaborative models.

The structure of the article is to consider the five critical elements required to implement a schoolnet. connectivity, catalysts, culture, content, and competencies. Kemp considers the Americas--North, Central, and South. In this annotation, I will just focus on Central and South America.

1. Connectivity (inexpensive technological infrastructure). Kemp notes that although the range of Internet use varies widely in Latin American Countries (from 1.6 in Nicaragua to 20.3 in Chile in 2003), phenomenal growth is occurring. During the past six years, El Salvador experienced a 650 % growth rate, Guatemala 208%, Honduras and Paraguay 400%, Brazil 186%, and Columbia 126%. Further, the rate of growth of hosts in Latin America is among the highest in the world--most countries at least doubling. Mexico increased 229% between 1999 and 2000.

2. Catalysts (drivers to provide impetus to finance projects, create models, write policies). Several Central and South American countries have embraced the concept of schoolnets and have begun developing coordinated approaches to their implementation. For instance,

• Costa Rica, Chile, Jamaica, and Mexico have begun to use ICT to address educational equity issues
• Costa Rica, Uruguay, and Brazil have made technology investments in order to prepare secondary school students and leaders for technology jobs
• Mexico (Telescundaria) has created a new kind of school built around technology as its core education delivery system

3. Culture. (educational and social vision for implementation of ICTs). In Latin America, there is not yet a context, environment, or culture that promotes equitable access to the Internet for all regions in every country.

4. Content (sound pedagogy, as well as exciting and interactive, that takes advantage of technology as medium). One of the advantages of Latin American countries is that (with the exception of Brazil) they share a common language. Kemp lists a number of noteworthy portals, databases, virtual museums and content-specific Web sites. They include:

Red Escolar (Mexico)	Mutirao Digital (Brazil)
TareaWeb (Mexico)	Kidlink (Brazil)
Educar (Chile)	Conexiones (Colombia)

5. Competencies (technology competence standards developed, supported, and maintained for both teachers and students). This is a major need in Latin America. Obviously, before students can be expected to develop core skills in technology, (a) the technology has to be there, and (b) the teachers need to have core competencies in the use of the technology. Kemp notes several initiatives directed to teaching teachers how to incorporate technology into their teaching, but thisclearly is an area that needs major attention in Latin America.

Despite the title, this article is not about the hybridization of distance learning in Brazil. It is about Brazil and the Brazilian Ministry of Education. Litto can barely contain his contempt and frustration at that conservative body which, he even argues in one place, acts illegally. Litto even calls for acts of civil disobedience for schools and students. Ostensibly, the paper examines why hybridization is the only way to offer distance education in Brazil. The short answer is because the Ministry of Education has, for a variety of political and ideological reasons, outlawed or made impossible true distance learning. The longer answer is to consider why. In doing so, Litto gives a fascinating statistical overview of Brazil and education in Brazil. We learn such facts that (in 1999) the fifth largest country in the world and the tenth largest economy in the world has over 35 million illiterates over the age of fifteen and of its 7,695 primary and secondary schools, 29.6 percent of them do not even have electricity. In 2000, 93 percent of the students who tried to get into higher education were turned away because there was no room. The country is crying out for education and the Ministry has been restricting it. In the last 30 years, Litto reports, there have been 30 different attempts to create an Open University. All have failed, primarily because, according to Litto, the conservative thinking in the Ministry of Education.

It is Litto's point (and the real point of this paper) that the Ministry of Education, with its highly centralized power, conservative members and ideological bias, is not capable of dealing with the increasing needs of education in Brazil. Interestingly, he mentions that a new government will take office in 2003 and it is possible things could get better then. Apparently, they did (see Boff above).

In his introductory chapter, Naidoo puts world education in perspective. He first calls attention to Article 26 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (authorized by the General Assembly of the United Nations in 19590), which claims that everyone has a right to education directed to the full development of the person. A proclamation sadly unfulfilled in many parts of the world fifty years later. To correct that, in April 2000, the World Education Forum adopted the so called "Dakar Framework for Action," a series of several goals on the improvement of education and gender disparity. One goal in particular is to achieve universal primary education by 2015. The point is that to meet these goals, many education ministers, officials, and educators are increasingly looking to ICTs as a way of supporting and enhancing their efforts. And school networks are a part of the strategy.

Essentially, a schoolnet is an organization that encourages the use of ICTs for teaching and learning. Naidoo (p. 4) lists several schoolnet activities. For instance, schoolnets can:

• solicit hardware and software for schools
• get schools to collaborate on education initiatives through technology
• network to share electronic and other resources
• train teachers in the use of educational technology
• use ICT for school management and administration
• advocating for ICT to support the educational system
• collaborate on programs

He also notes the Commonwealth of Learning's Web resource site on SchoolNets. (http://www.col.org/cense/)

This publication is primarily concerned with investigating how ODL can strengthen the teaching profession and help towards the 2015 goal of quality primary education for all. Essentially, the problem is that there are not enough teachers. But even in places where there are enough teachers, they are usually not well-trained enough, often having little more than secondary education themselves.

Governance. The author notes that ministries of education most often have the primary responsibility for teacher education. Curriculum agencies and teacher colleges can sometimes have responsibility as well. Perraton notes it is important for the needs and interests of teachers' unions professional associations to be taken into account. Other agencies are also involved, such as the World Bank and the Commonwealth of Learning. The point is, policy-makers in DE need to be aware of these stakeholders and the relationships among them.

Aims. The planner's first question should be about purpose. Is it (a) initial training of unqualified teachers, (b) upgrading already qualified teachers, (c) training related to school curriculum changes, or (d) preparing teachers for new roles. Perraton notes there has been increasing shifts from pre-service to in-service education, and that there has also been two competing curricular models--one traditional and behaviorist (where knowledge is essentially transmitted), and the other more progressive and constructivist (where knowledge is created through more participatory, learner-centered, and less authoritarian approaches). The point is that the progressive strand places more demands on teachers and may be asking more than they can handle (too much change all at once) and that planners need to have realistic expectations about what can be achieved.

Outcomes. Once the aims have been articulated, the policy planner for DE needs to consider how far can ODL go to accomplish them. DE may offer significant advantages in terms of access, scale, speed, and cost. The evidence is strong that ODL can reach far more students than traditional means, and there is good evidence on completion rates when trainees are enrolled en bloc in a program with a guarantee of improved status. But the evidence on outcomes overall is not very solid, indicating, as Perraton notes, a lack of good research on outcomes and teacher education in general.

Organization. Here, Perraton argues that to make DE for teacher education work, the planners need structures and facilities for seven primary functions.

1. Governance, planning, and management of funding
2. Materials development and production
3. Materials reproduction and distribution
4. Student recruitment, advice and support, including supervision of classroom practice
5. Assessment and evaluation of learners
6. Feedback system and formative evaluation
7. Record Systems

Perraton discusses six models of organizing teacher education. The models are: (1) ad hoc arrangements, (2) single or dual mode teachers' college, (3) single or dual mode university, (4) multi-country program, (5) NGO single-purpose project, and (6) consortia and partnerships. Of particular interest here is the consortia/partnership model. Perraton notes that they tend to be fragile when the different partners could replace one another, and they tend to be stronger when their functions are quite different. Perhaps the most important consideration in deciding on the different models is how well does the program link up with the rest of teacher education.

But no matter what organizational option is chosen, the planners must decide on how to manage, supervise and assess teaching practice. Obviously, this presents logistical challenges for large-scale distance programs. Perraton lists possible models from no practicum at all to a classroom-based practicum under the guidance of a mentor within the school.

Methods (Technology choices). Perraton briefly lists the strengths, weaknesses, prerequisites and cost behaviors of each primary method: print, radio, audiocassettes, television, audio and video conferencing, computers, and computer communication. The key issue planners need to consider is between using technology to distribute teaching materials (where economies of scale can be achieved) and providing two-way communication for tutoring and student interaction. Obviously costs and access to technology are also major considerations.

Funding. DE programs for teachers are funding from four different kinds of sources: government, student fees, NGOs, and donor agencies. Often, there is a combination of more than one source. One important issue the planner needs to consider is sustainability. What happens when/if the funding dries up.

Accreditation and Assessment. There are two primary difficulties. The first is that if DE teaching programs lead to different qualifications than are awarded conventionally, then the DE will generally be regarded as inferior. Yet if the same qualifications are awarded, then the methods of assessment may not be appropriate for one or the other. The second difficulty is the practicality of examination. Assessing knowledge and understanding is fairly easy, but assessing a student's pedagogical skills is difficult. Here, mentors on site can make a contribution.

This publication is a collection of ten case studies of ODL in teacher education. The case studies were meant to serve as a basis for the later Perraton, Creed, and Robinson (2002) publication (to be annotated later) . Essentially, the authors are looking at how effectively ODL works and what methods are being used. To gauge effectiveness, they looked at completion rates, comparative costs, and evidence that the teaching has had an effect in the classroom. Further, they wanted to assess whether the initiatives were significant and sustainable. The case studies included examining the use of television in Brazil and China, a focus on head teachers in Burkina Faso, and ICT in Chile and the UK.

Among their discoveries: (1) DE can provide an economic advantage, but it depends on scale, technology, media, and program design; (2) ICT is not widespread and that printed materials remain the primary medium for transmitting information; (3) DE is funded from at least one--though often a combination of--government budgets, student fees, the private sector, NGOs, and funding agencies; (4) we need more research on ODL teacher education.

A significant portion of this publication is to report on the results of a workshop where experts in Latin American education were gathered and surveyed. But the publication is much more than a report on experts' opinions. Swartzman actually uses the survey as a context for examining key issues of education and globalization in Latin America.

In sum, the experts believe that: (a) globalization will have a negative impact on Latin America and the Caribbean, (b) economic stagnation, political instability, inequality, and social exclusion will increase, and (c) governments will have the dwindling capacity to develop long term social policies. They believe that education (a) is moving towards greater decentralization, autonomy, and community and this is a good thing, and (b) requires creativity, leadership, and initiative, and that this cannot be performed well in a command line bureaucracy.

Essentially, it comes down to teachers who, in most Latin American and Caribbean countries, are ill-paid and ill-prepared and the situation is getting worse, in part because of the finance reforms of globalization and the consequent pressures of budgetary restrictions. The experts have a consensus that supporting teachers and improving teacher education are crucial.

Interestingly, in spite of much pessimism about the global economy and Latin America's participation in it, there appears to be much hope expressed for distant learning technologies. They recognize that the information and communication technologies cannot be taken for granted, since they require long-term investments in infrastructure, but there is the clear expectation that distance learning technologies can not only provide good quality content and partially compensate for the limitations in teacher qualifications, but also engage the teachers, help raise the prestige and earnings of the teaching profession and help bring in young university students as an intermediary step in their professional careers.

Berruecos, C. (2004). Open university and distance education coordination: Strategies used to consolidate distance   education at the National Autonomous University of Mexico.  International Review of Research in Open and   Distance Learning, (5)2. Retrieved June 8, 2005 from:
  http://www.irrodl.org/content/v5.2/berruecos-research.html